Greenhouse_gas

Top: Increasing atmospheric CO₂ levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. Bottom: The amount of net carbon increase in the atmosphere, compared to carbon emissions from burning fossil fuel.

Greenhouse gases are components of the atmosphere that contribute to the greenhouse effect. Without the greenhouse effect the Earth would be uninhabitable;http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5651/1719 in its absence, the mean temperature of the earth would be about −19 °C (−2 °F, 254 K) rather than the present mean temperature of about 15 °C (59 °F, 288 K)http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_Ch01.pdf. Greenhouse gases include, in order of relative abundance: water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Greenhouse gases come from natural sources and human activity.

Contents 1 The "greenhouse effect" 2 Anthropogenic greenhouse gases 3 The role of water vapor 4 Greenhouse gas emissions 4.1 Recent rates of change and emission 4.1.1 Asia 4.1.2 United States 5 Removal from the atmosphere and global warming potential 6 Related effects 7 See also 8 References 9 External links 9.1 Carbon dioxide emissions 9.2 Methane emissions 9.3 Policy and advocacy

The "greenhouse effect"

Main article: Greenhouse effect

Pattern of absorption bands created by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and their effect on both solar radiation and upgoing thermal radiation

When sunlight reaches the surface of the Earth, some of it is absorbed and warms the surface. Because the Earth\'s surface is much cooler than the sun, it radiates energy at much longer wavelengths than the sun does, peaking in the infrared at about 10µm. The atmosphere absorbs these longer wavelengths more effectively than it does the shorter wavelengths from the sun. The absorption of this longwave radiant energy warms the atmosphere; the atmosphere also is warmed by transfer of sensible and latent heat from the surface. Greenhouse gases also emit longwave radiation both upward to space and downward to the surface. The downward part of this longwave radiation emitted by the atmosphere is the "greenhouse effect." The term is a misnomer, as this process is not the mechanism that warms greenhouses.

The major greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36–70% of the greenhouse effect on Earth (not including clouds); carbon dioxide, which causes 9–26%; methane, which causes 4–9%, and ozone, which causes 3–7%. It is not possible to state that a certain gas causes a certain percentage of the greenhouse effect, because the influences of the various gases are not additive. (The higher ends of the ranges quoted are for the gas alone; the lower ends, for the gas counting overlaps.)Kiehl, J. T.; Kevin E. Trenberth (February 1997). "Earth’s Annual Global Mean Energy Budget" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78 (2): 197–208. Retrieved on 2006-05-01. Water vapour: feedback or forcing?. RealClimate (6 Apr 2005). Retrieved on 2006-05-01. Other greenhouse gases include, but are not limited to, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and chlorofluorocarbons (see IPCC list of greenhouse gases).

The major atmospheric constituents (nitrogen, N₂ and oxygen, O₂) are not greenhouse gases. This is because homonuclear diatomic molecules such as N₂ and O₂ neither absorb nor emit infrared radiation, as there is no net change in the dipole moment of these molecules when they vibrate. Molecular vibrations occur at energies that are of the same magnitude as the energy of the photons on infrared light. Heteronuclear diatomics such as CO or HCl absorb IR; however, these molecules are short-lived in the atmosphere owing to their reactivity and solubility. As a consequence they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect.

Late 19th century scientists experimentally discovered that N₂ and O₂ did not absorb infrared radiation (called, at that time, "dark radiation") and that CO₂ and many other gases did absorb such radiation. It was recognized in the early 20th century that the known major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere caused the earth\'s temperature to be higher than it would have been without the greenhouse gases.

Anthropogenic greenhouse gases

Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions broken down into 8 different sectors for the year 2000.

The projected temperature increase for a range of greenhouse gas stabilization scenarios (the coloured bands). The black line in middle of the shaded area indicates \'best estimates\'; the red and the blue lines the likely limits. From the work of IPCC AR4, 2007.

Per capita anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions by country for the year 2000 including land-use change.

The concentrations of several greenhouse gases have increased over time.Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis: C.1 Observed Changes in Globally Well-Mixed Greenhouse Gas Concentrations and Radiative Forcing. Retrieved on 2006-05-01. Human activity may increase the greenhouse effect through release of carbon dioxide, but human influences on other greenhouse gases can also be important.Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis: figure 6-6. Retrieved on 2006-05-01. Some of the main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity include:

• burning of fossil fuels and deforestation leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations;
• livestock and paddy rice farming, land use and wetland changes, pipeline losses, and covered vented landfill emissions leading to higher methane atmospheric concentrations. Many of the newer style fully vented septic systems that enhance and target the fermentation process also are major sources of atmospheric methane;
• use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in refrigeration systems, and use of CFCs and halons in fire suppression systems and manufacturing processes.
• agricultural activities, including the use of fertilizers, that lead to higher nitrous oxide concentrations.

The seven sources of CO₂ from fossil fuel combustion are (with percentage contributions for 2000–2004):

1. Solid fuels (e.g. coal): 35%
2. Liquid fuels (e.g. gasoline): 36%
3. Gaseous fuels (e.g. natural gas): 20%
4. Flaring gas industrially and at wells: <1%
5. Cement production: 3%
6. Non-fuel hydrocarbons: <1%
7. The "international bunkers" of shipping and air transport not included in national inventories: 4%

The U.S. EPA ranks the major greenhouse gas contributing end-user sectors in the following order: industrial, transportation, residential, commercial and agriculturalhttp://epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport.html. Major sources of an individual\'s GHG include home heating and cooling, electricity consumption, and transportation. Corresponding conservation measures are improving home building insulation, compact fluorescent lamps and choosing high miles per gallon vehicles.

Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and three groups of fluorinated gases (sulfur hexafluoride, HFCs, and PFCs) are the major greenhouse gases and the subject of the Kyoto Protocol, which entered into force in 2005.Lerner & K. Lee Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth (2006). Environmental issues : essential primary sources.". Thomson Gale. Retrieved on 2006-09-11.

CFCs, although greenhouse gases, are regulated by the Montreal Protocol, which was motivated by CFCs\' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming. Note that ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming though the two processes often are confused in the popular media.

The role of water vapor

Increasing water vapor at Boulder, Colorado.

Water vapor is a naturally occurring greenhouse gas and accounts for the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect, between 36% and 66% realclimate.org. Water vapour: feedback or forcing?.. Water vapor concentrations fluctuate regionally, but human activity does not directly affect water vapor concentrations except at local scales (for example, near irrigated fields).

Current state-of-the-art climate models include fully interactive cloudsBBC News. Models \'key to climate forecasts\'.. They show that an increase in atmospheric temperature caused by the greenhouse effect due to anthropogenic gases will in turn lead to an increase in the water vapor content of the troposphere, with approximately constant relative humidity. The increased water vapor in turn leads to an increase in the greenhouse effect and thus a further increase in temperature; the increase in temperature leads to still further increase in atmospheric water vapor; and the feedback cycle continues until equilibrium is reached. Thus water vapor acts as a positive feedback to the forcing provided by human-released greenhouse gases such as CO₂. Held, Isaac M. & Soden, Brian J. (2006), "Robust Responses of the Hydrological Cycle to Global Warming", Journal of Climate 19 (21): 5686–5699, doi:10.1175/JCLI3990, <http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/reference/bibliography/2006/ih0601.pdf>. Retrieved on 11 July 2007

Greenhouse gas emissions

Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions

Measurements from Antarctic ice cores show that just before industrial emissions started, atmospheric CO₂ levels were about 280 parts per million by volume (ppm; the units µL/L are occasionally used and are identical to parts per million by volume). From the same ice cores it appears that CO₂ concentrations stayed between 260 and 280 ppm during the preceding 10,000 years. Studies using evidence from stomata of fossilized leaves suggest greater variability, with CO₂ levels above 300 ppm during the period 7,000–10,000 years ago,Friederike Wagner, Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher (2002). "Rapid atmospheric CO2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event". PNAS 99 (19): 12011–12014. doi:10.1073/pnas.182420699.  though others have argued that these findings more likely reflect calibration/contamination problems rather than actual CO₂ variability.Andreas Indermühle, Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker (1999). "Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations". Science 286 (5446): 1815. doi:10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a.  Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations. Science. Retrieved on May 26, 2005.H.J. Smith, M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni (1997). "The CO₂ concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition". Geophysical Research Letters 24 (1): 1–4. 

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the concentrations of many of the greenhouse gases have increased. The concentration of CO₂ has increased by about 100 ppm (i.e., from 280 ppm to 380 ppm). The first 50 ppm increase took place in about 200 years, from the start of the Industrial Revolution to around 1973; the next 50 ppm increase took place in about 33 years, from 1973 to 2006. [1]PDF (96.8 KiB). Many observations are available on line in a variety of Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases. The greenhouse gases with the largest radiative forcing are:

Relevant to radiative forcing

Gas	Current (1998) Amount by volume	Increase over pre-industrial (1750)	Percentage increase	Radiative forcing (W/m²)
Carbon dioxide	365 ppm {383 ppm(2007.01)}	87 ppm {105 ppm(2007.01)}	31% {37.77%(2007.01)}	1.46 {~1.532 (2007.01)}
Methane	1,745 ppb	1,045 ppb	150%	0.48
Nitrous oxide	314 ppb	44 ppb	16%	0.15

Global anthropogenic Carbon emissions 1751–2004.

Relevant to both radiative forcing and ozone depletion; all of the following have no natural sources and hence zero amounts pre-industrial

Gas	Current (1998) Amount by volume	Radiative forcing (W/m²)
CFC-11	268 ppt	0.07
CFC-12	533 ppt	0.17
CFC-113	84 ppt	0.03
Carbon tetrachloride	102 ppt	0.01
HCFC-22	69 ppt	0.03

(Source: IPCC radiative forcing report 1994 updated (to 1998) by IPCC TAR table 6.1 [2][3]).

Recent rates of change and emission

Greenhouse gas intensity in 2000 including land-use change

The sharp acceleration in CO₂ emissions since 2000 of >3% y⁻¹ (>2 ppm y⁻¹) from 1.1% y⁻¹ during the 90\'s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations. Although over 3/4 of cumulative anthropogenic CO₂ is still attributable to the developed world, China was responsible for most of global growth in emissions during this period. Localised plummeting emissions associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union have been followed by slow emissions growth in this region due to more efficient energy use, made necessary by the increasing proportion of it that is exported.Raupach, M.R. et al. (2007) "Global and regional drivers of accelerating CO₂ emissions." Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 104(24): 10288–10293. In comparison, methane has not increased appreciably, and N₂O by 0.25% y⁻¹[4].

Asia

Atmospheric levels of the main greenhouse gas have set another new peak in a sign of the industrial rise of Asian economies led by China. http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/46517/story.htm Over the 2000-2010 interval China is expected to increase its carbon emissions by 600 MT, largely because of the rapid construction of old-fashioned power plants in poorer internal provinces.[http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/newsrel/international/03-08ChinasCarbonDioxideEmissions.asp "UC Analysis Shows Alarming Increase in Expected Growth of China\'s Carbon Dioxide Emissions" accessed 2008-03-11

United States

Main articles: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States and United States federal register of greenhouse gas emissions

The United Stateshttp://www.graphwise.com/portal/index.php?/archives/104-U.S.-Carbon-Dioxide-Emissions-from-Energy-Sources.html emitted 16.3% more GHG in 2005 than it did in 1990.Emissions inventory from the EPA, cited in Science News, vol. 171, p. 318 According to a preliminary estimate by the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, the largest national producer of CO₂ emissions since 2006 has been China with an estimated annual production of about 6200 megatonnes. It is followed by the United States with about 5,800 megatonnes. Relative to 2005, China\'s fossil CO₂ emissions increased in 2006 by 8.7%, while in the USA, comparable CO₂ emissions decreased in 2006 by 1.4%. The agency notes that its estimates do not include some CO₂ sources of uncertain magnitude"China now no. 1 in CO2 emissions; USA in second position" (2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-21.. Although these tonnages are small compared to the CO₂ in the Earth\'s atmosphere, they are significantly larger than pre-industrial levels.

Removal from the atmosphere and global warming potential

Major greenhouse gas trends

Aside from water vapor, which has a residence time of days, most greenhouse gases take many years to leave the atmosphere. Although it is not easy to know with precision how long it takes greenhouse gases to leave the atmosphere, there are estimates for the principal greenhouse gases.

A related concept is the airbourne fraction, which is the proportion of a GHG (usually CO2) which remains in the atmosphere immeadiately after it is omitted. For CO2 the fraction has fluctuated around 50% for the past 20 years.

Greenhouse gases can be removed from the atmosphere by various processes:

• as a consequence of a physical change (condensation and precipitation remove water vapor from the atmosphere).
• as a consequence of chemical reactions within the atmosphere. This is the case for methane. It is oxidized by reaction with naturally occurring hydroxyl radical, OH· and degraded to CO₂ and water vapor at the end of a chain of reactions (the contribution of the CO₂ from the oxidation of methane is not included in the methane Global warming potential). This also includes solution and solid phase chemistry occurring in atmospheric aerosols.
• as a consequence of a physical interchange at the interface between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet. An example is the mixing of atmospheric gases into the oceans at the boundary layer.
• as a consequence of a chemical change at the interface between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet. This is the case for CO₂, which is reduced by photosynthesis of plants, and which, after dissolving in the oceans, reacts to form carbonic acid and bicarbonate and carbonate ions (see ocean acidification).
• as a consequence of a photochemical change. Halocarbons are dissociated by UV light releasing Cl· and F· as free radicals in the stratosphere with harmful effects on ozone (halocarbons are generally too stable to disappear by chemical reaction in the atmosphere).
• as a consequence of dissociative ionization caused by high energy cosmic rays or lightning discharges, which break molecular bonds. For example, lightning forms N anions from N₂ which then react with O₂ to form NO₂.

Per capita responsibility for current anthropogenic atmospheric CO2

Two scales can be used to describe the effect of different gases in the atmosphere. The first, the atmospheric lifetime, describes how long it takes to restore the system to equilibrium following a small increase in the concentration of the gas in the atmosphere. Individual molecules may interchange with other reservoirs such as soil, the oceans, and biological systems, but the mean lifetime refers to the decaying away of the excess. It is sometimes erroneously claimed that the atmospheric lifetime of CO₂ is only a few years because that is the average time for any CO₂ molecule to stay in the atmosphere before being removed by mixing into the ocean, uptake by photosynthesis, or other processes. This ignores the balancing fluxes of CO₂ into the atmosphere from the other reservoirs. It is the net concentration changes of the various greenhouse gases by all sources and sinks that determines atmospheric lifetime, not just the removal processes.

The second scale is global warming potential (GWP). The GWP depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a greenhouse gas and its atmospheric lifetime. GWP is measured relative to the same mass of CO₂ and evaluated for a specific timescale. Thus, if a molecule has a high GWP on a short time scale (say 20 years) but has only a short lifetime, it will have a large GWP on a 20 year scale but a small one on a 100 year scale. Conversely, if a molecule has a longer atmospheric lifetime than CO₂ its GWP will increase with time.

Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and GWP for several greenhouse gases include:

• CO₂ has a variable atmospheric lifetime, and cannot be specified preciselySolomon, Susan; Qin, Dahe & Manning, Martin et al., eds. (2007), "Frequently Asked Question 7.1 "Are the Increases in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Other Greenhouse Gases During the Industrial Era Caused by Human Activities?"", IPCC, 2007: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge Press, ISBN 978-0521-88009-1, <http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Pub_FAQs.pdf>. Retrieved on 2007-07-24. Recent work indicates that recovery from a large input of atmospheric CO₂ from burning fossil fuels will result in an effective lifetime of tens of thousands of years.Archer, David (2005), "Fate of fossil fuel CO₂ in geologic time", Journal of Geophysical Research 110 (C9): C09S05.1-C09S05.6, doi:10.1029/2004JC002625, <http://geosci.uchicago.edu/~archer/reprints/archer.2005.fate_co2.pdf>. Retrieved on 27 July 2007Caldeira, Ken & Wickett, Michael E. (2005), "Ocean model predictions of chemistry changes from carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere and ocean", Journal of Geophysical Research 110 (C9): C09S04.1-C09S04.12, doi:10.1029/2004JC002671, <http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/acidification/paper/Caldeira_Wickett_2005_JGR.pdf>. Retrieved on 27 July 2007 Carbon dioxide is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods.
• Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 3 years and a GWP of 62 over 20 years, 23 over 100 years and 7 over 500 years. The decrease in GWP associated with longer times is associated with the fact that the methane is degraded to water and CO₂ by chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
• Nitrous oxide has an atmospheric lifetime of 120 years and a GWP of 296 over 100 years.
• CFC-12 has an atmospheric lifetime of 100 years and a GWP of 10600 over 100 years.
• HCFC-22 has an atmospheric lifetime of 12.1 years and a GWP of 1700 over 100 years.
• Tetrafluoromethane has an atmospheric lifetime of 50,000 years and a GWP of 5700 over 100 years.
• Sulfur hexafluoride has an atmospheric lifetime of 3,200 years and a GWP of 22000 over 100 years.

Source : IPCC, table 6.7.

Related effects

MOPITT 2000 global carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide has an indirect radiative effect by elevating concentrations of methane and tropospheric ozone through scavenging of atmospheric constituents (e.g., the hydroxyl radical, OH) that would otherwise destroy them. Carbon monoxide is created when carbon-containing fuels are burned incompletely. Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide has an atmospheric lifetime of only a few monthsImpact of Emissions, Chemistry, and Climate on Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide: 100-year Predictions from a Global Chemistry-Climate ModelPDF (115 KiB) and as a consequence is spatially more variable than longer-lived gases.

Another potentially important indirect effect comes from methane, which in addition to its direct radiative impact also contributes to ozone formation. Shindell et al (2005)Shindell, Drew T.; Faluvegi, Greg; Bell, Nadine; Schmidt, Gavin A. "An emissions-based view of climate forcing by methane and tropospheric ozone", Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 32, No. 4 [5] argue that the contribution to climate change from methane is at least double previous estimates as a result of this effect.Methane\'s Impacts on Climate Change May Be Twice Previous Estimates

See also

Energy Portal

Environment Portal

Alternative propulsion Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases for links to freely available data. Atmospheric window Attribution of recent climate change Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Biofuel Carbon emissions by country Carbon Disclosure Project Carbon sink Carbon neutral Clean Air Act Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)

Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database (eGRID) Emission standard Environmental accounting Environmental agreements European Climate Change Programme GHG Vehicle Test Group Global warming Greenhouse gas emissions from transportation Greenhouse gas emissions in the USA Greenwash Global Atmosphere Watch Hydrogen Economy ISO 14064 ISO 14065

Life cycle cost analysis List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency North American Carbon Program Norwegian Polar Institute Ocean acidification Radiative forcing Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Renewable energy Sustainable Advertising United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Western Regional Climate Action Initiative World energy resources and consumption Zero carbon economy

References

External links

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

California_AB_1493

Greenhouse gas at the Open Directory Project

• Greenhouse-gas reduction technologies for coal-fired power generation.
• The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI).
• Greenhouse Gases Sources, Levels, Study results — University of Michigan; eia.gov findings

Carbon dioxide emissions

• International Energy Annual: Reserves
• International Energy Annual 2003: Carbon Dioxide Emissions
• International Energy Annual 2003: Notes and Sources for Table H.1co2 (Metric tons of carbon dioxide can be converted to metric tons of carbon equivalent by multiplying by 12/44)
• DOE — EIA — Alternatives to Traditional Transportation Fuels 1994 — Volume 2, Greenhouse Gas Emissions (includes "Greenhouse Gas Spectral Overlaps and Their Significance")
• NOAA Paleoclimatology Program — Vostok Ice Core
• NOAA CMDL CCGG — Interactive Atmospheric Data Visualization NOAA CO₂ data
• Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre FAQ Includes links to Carbon Dioxide statistics
• Little Green Data Book 2007, World Bank. Lists C02 statistics by country, including per capita and by country income class.
• Flight Carbon Emission Calculator

Methane emissions

• BBC News — Thawing Siberian bogs are releasing more methane
• METHANE-EATING BUG HOLDS PROMISE FOR CUTTING GREENHOUSE GAS. Media Release, GNS Science, New Zealand

Policy and advocacy

• Australian Greenhouse Gas Initiative
• Global Green Plan, a not-for profit organisation based in Melbourne, Australia, developing school curriculum to teach youth how to reduce emissions
• Carbon Dioxide is Good for the Environment 2001 paper by the National Center for Public Policy Research
• Environmental Effects of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide paper by the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine
• EU page about reducing CO₂ emissions from light-duty vehicles : the EU\'s aim is to reach — by 2010 at the latest — an average CO₂ emission figure of 120 g/km for all new passenger cars marketed in the Union.

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Models	Global climate model
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Potential effects and issues	General Climate change and agriculture · Drought · Economics of global warming · El Niño · Glacier retreat · Mass extinction · Ozone depletion · Ocean acidification · Sea level rise · Season creep · Shutdown of thermohaline circulation By country Australia · India · United States
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Proposed adaptations	Strategies Damming glacial lakes · Drought tolerance · Irrigation investment · Rainwater storage · Sustainable development · Weather control Initiatives Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change · Land Allocation Decision Support System
Category:Global warming · Category:Climate change · Glossary of climate change

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